Chapter 2 - Aircraft General Knowledge (AGK)

These notes are exam-focused for CASA PPL AGK and aligned with FAA PHAK system knowledge where technically applicable. Use your aircraft POH/AFM as final authority for numbers, limitations, and procedures.

2.0 Terminology: POH and AFM

• AFM (Airplane/Aircraft Flight Manual): the approved flight manual containing aircraft-specific operating limitations, procedures, and performance data that pilots must comply with.
• POH (Pilot’s Operating Handbook): the manufacturer handbook used in day-to-day operations; for most light aircraft, the POH includes the approved AFM sections and is commonly referred to as the aircraft’s AFM/POH.
• Why this matters for exam and flight: if a generic rule conflicts with aircraft documentation, follow the approved AFM/POH, placards, and limitations for that specific aircraft.

2.1 Airframe, Structure, and Flight Controls

• Major airframe groups
  • Fuselage: central structure that carries occupants, payload, and connects wings/tail; houses cockpit/cabin.
  • Wings: generate lift; attach engines on many types; carry fuel tanks on many GA aircraft.
  • Empennage: tail assembly—usually horizontal stabilizer (pitch stability) and vertical stabilizer (directional stability/yaw damping).
  • Landing gear: supports aircraft on ground; absorbs loads on takeoff/landing (fixed or retractable).
  • Engine mount: structure attaching engine to airframe; transmits thrust/vibration loads.
  • Control surfaces: movable surfaces that change lift/drag/moment for control (primary and secondary).
• Primary controls (rotate aircraft about its axes—see PHAK flight controls chapter):
  • Ailerons: trailing-edge wing surfaces that move differentially → roll about longitudinal axis.
  • Elevator (or stabilator): horizontal tail surface(s) → pitch about lateral axis.
  • Rudder: vertical tail surface → yaw about vertical axis.
• Secondary / high-lift / drag devices
  • Flaps (plain / split / slotted / Fowler): extend camber and/or wing area → more lift and drag at low speed (takeoff/landing).
  • Trim tabs (and related trim systems): small surfaces that reduce steady control forces so the pilot is not holding pressure continuously.
• Typical construction
  • Semi-monocoque: loads carried by skin plus internal frames/stringers (common metal GA construction).
  • Stressed skin: outer skin participates in carrying flight loads.
  • Frames, stringers: circumferential/longitudinal stiffeners forming fuselage shape and strength.
  • Spars, ribs: main wing beams (spar) and cross-section supports (rib) that define wing shape and carry bending/torsion.
• Structural terms
  • Datum: reference plane/line for measuring arms in weight and balance.
  • Stations / arms: distance from datum to each weight item (moment arm).
  • Limit load: maximum load for normal operation certification basis; ultimate load: higher structural proof margin (typically 1.5× limit load conceptually—always use POH/AFM wording).
  • Normal vs utility category: operating categories with different approved manoeuvre/weight limits—must match POH.
• Common failure risks
  • Corrosion: metal loss from environment; inspect joints and drain holes.
  • Fatigue cracking: cracks from repeated stress cycles; inspect high-stress areas per maintenance guidance.
  • Buckling: thin panels failing under compression/shear.
  • Control cable wear / hinge damage: can cause binding or restricted surface movement—preflight free movement checks.

References: FAA PHAK — Chapter 3: Aircraft Construction, FAA PHAK — Chapter 6: Flight Controls

Visual references (primary and secondary controls)

Primary flight controls (aileron, elevator, rudder):

Source page: Wikimedia Commons - ControlSurfaces.gif

Secondary/high-lift and drag devices on wing (flaps, slats, spoilers, etc.):

Source page: Wikimedia Commons - Control surfaces at the wing of a plane.svg

Exam cues

• Know what each control does and opposite control combinations for coordinated turns.
• Understand flap effects on stall speed, drag, climb performance, and go-around behavior.

2.2 Piston Engine Fundamentals

• Four-stroke cycle (one thermodynamic cycle per two crankshaft revolutions per cylinder):
  • Intake: piston descends, inlet valve open—air/fuel charge enters.
  • Compression: valves closed, piston rises—pressure/temperature rise.
  • Power: spark ignites mixture near TDC—expansion drives piston down.
  • Exhaust: exhaust valve opens—burned gases expelled.
• Engine layout (typical light GA piston):
  • Opposed cylinders: cylinders arranged on opposite sides of crankcase—often horizontally opposed flat engines.
  • Crankshaft: converts reciprocating piston motion to rotary output (drives prop).
  • Camshaft / valve train: controls intake and exhaust valve opening/closing timing.
  • Spark plugs: ignite mixture each cycle (two plugs per cylinder common for redundancy).
• Power output factors
  • Mixture strength: fuel-to-air ratio; affects power, cooling margin, and detonation margin (lean/rich per POH).
  • RPM: revolutions per minute; with constant-speed prop, manifold pressure (MP) also defines power.
  • Volumetric efficiency: how well cylinders fill with fresh charge (affected by induction design, altitude, throttle).
  • Density altitude: non-standard temperature/pressure reduces mass airflow → less power.
• Detonation vs pre-ignition
  • Detonation: abnormal rapid pressure rise after spark—can damage pistons/cylinder heads.
  • Pre-ignition: mixture ignites before intended spark timing due to hot spot—often very destructive quickly.
  • Both demand mixture/power adjustments and maintenance attention.
• Shock cooling risk: rapid power reduction can drop cylinder head temperatures (CHT) quickly; some POHs caution against abrupt cooling in descent—follow type guidance.

Induction systems

• Carburettor
  • Venturi: narrows duct to speed airflow and lower pressure for fuel discharge.
  • Fuel metering: jets/mixture control set fuel flow for throttle position and altitude.
  • Throttle butterfly: restricts airflow to control manifold pressure/RPM.
  • Mixture control: adjusts fuel flow at a given throttle (often pulled lean for cruise).

• Fuel injection: meters fuel at injectors—typically better cylinder-to-cylinder distribution and no carb icing in the carb (induction icing can still occur at filter/throttle plate on some systems).

• Carb icing (induction ice in carb systems):
  • Forms when moisture and cooling from fuel evaporation/vaporization chill the venturi.
  • Often worst at partial throttle (partially closed butterfly).
  • Symptoms: falling RPM (fixed pitch), rough running, MP drop (constant speed).
  • Action: carb heat routes warm air to melt ice—expect temporary rougher running during clearing.

Ignition

• Magneto: self-contained ignition generator driven by engine—does not require aircraft electrical bus power for spark.
• Dual magnetos: two independent systems + two plugs per cylinder improve combustion and provide redundancy.
• Magneto check (run-up): verifies drop within POH limits—large/no drop can indicate faulty grounding/wiring/plugs.

Lubrication and cooling

• Engine oil: lubricates bearings/cam, cools pistons via jet/spray, cleans/contaminant suspension, seals, corrosion protection.
• Air cooling: cylinder fins plus baffles and cowl flaps (if fitted) direct cooling airflow.
• Trend monitoring: watch oil pressure/temperature and CHT/EGT together—not isolated snapshots.

References: FAA PHAK — Chapter 7: Aircraft Systems (powerplant, induction, ignition, oil)

Figure (four-stroke airflow overview): Wikimedia Commons — 4-stroke engine with airflows

2.3 Propellers

• Fixed-pitch propeller: blade angle fixed by manufacture—simple, lighter; power absorbed varies strongly with airspeed/RPM.
  • Climb prop: lower pitch—better climb/acceleration; typically lower cruise speed at same RPM.
  • Cruise prop: higher pitch—better cruise efficiency; often weaker climb margin.
• Constant-speed (variable-pitch) propeller: governor changes blade angle to maintain pilot-selected RPM as load changes.
  • Fine pitch / low blade angle: lower blade AoA—typically higher RPM capability at low speed (takeoff/climb context).
  • Coarse pitch / high blade angle: higher blade AoA—typically holds cruise RPM with lower tip speeds / better efficiency.
• Key terms
  • Blade angle: angle between blade chord and plane of rotation (often controlled via governor).
  • Geometric pitch: theoretical distance blade would move forward per revolution if in solid medium (idealized).
  • Effective pitch: actual advance per revolution after losses—related to slip (propeller not screwing through air perfectly).
• Operational considerations
  • Overspeed: RPM exceeds limit—reduce power/pitch per POH immediately.
  • Control sequence: throttle → mixture → propeller order varies by POH—always follow AFM.
  • Avoid prohibited combinations: many POHs chart RPM × manifold pressure regions that damage engine.

References: FAA PHAK — Chapter 7: Aircraft Systems (propellers)

Figure (propeller blade angle / terminology): Wikimedia Commons — Propeller blade AOA (adapted from FAA PHAK figures)

2.4 Fuel System and Fuel Management

• Typical components
  • Fuel tanks: store usable fuel; know usable vs unusable per POH.
  • Vents: equalize tank pressure with atmosphere—blocked vent can cause feed failure or structural stress.
  • Fuel selectors / valves: route fuel from selected tank(s) to engine; incorrect position → starvation.
  • Strainers / filters: trap debris; blocked filter reduces flow—follow inspection/replacement schedule.
  • Sumps / drains: lowest points for water/sediment sampling—preflight until clean sample.
  • Pumps: engine-driven primary pump (often); electric auxiliary boost on many types for priming/takeoff/climb/emergency.
  • Lines: rigid/flexible plumbing—inspect for leaks, chafing, security.
  • Gauges: often permissive indication—cross-check with visual/timed consumption per POH.
  • Metering to engine: fuel injection or carburettor delivers metered fuel to cylinders.
• Fuel contamination
  • Water: heavier than AVGAS—settles in sumps; dangerous if ingested.
  • Sediment / rust: from tanks/lines—can block filters/injectors.
  • Microbial growth: more common in jet fuel storage; still understand contamination risk for training.
• Fuel grade / type discipline
  • Use only grades stated in POH/placards (AVGAS vs Jet-A confusion is catastrophic—different engines).
• Fuel starvation vs fuel exhaustion
  • Starvation: fuel remains but engine starved (wrong selector, blocked vent, pump failure, blocked line).
  • Exhaustion: usable fuel consumed—planning error.
• Balancing and feed management
  • Switch tanks per POH for lateral balance and reliable feed.
  • Some POHs warn against certain attitudes with low fuel—follow explicitly.

CASA exam-relevant points

• CASA workbook uses AVGAS specific gravity 0.72 kg/L in loading/fuel calculations.
• Fuel planning questions may reference CASR Part 91 MOS day VFR fuel policy.
• In exam scenarios, read whether operation assumptions are Part 91/other as stated.

References: FAA PHAK — Chapter 7: Aircraft Systems (fuel systems), CASA workbook

2.5 Electrical System

• Battery: chemical storage for starting and emergency/bus support; typically 12 V or 24 V DC in GA.
• Alternator / generator: alternator is most common on modern GA—produces AC converted to DC at higher efficiency than old generators; provides primary electrical power in flight.
• Voltage regulator: maintains bus voltage within limits as electrical load changes.
• Bus bars: electrical “distribution rails” feeding avionics, lights, pumps—often split essential vs non-essential conceptually.
• Circuit breakers / fuses: protect wiring from overcurrent—reset breakers only once per POH guidance (avoid repeated cycling faults).

• Master / avionics switches: master connects battery/alternator to electrical system; avionics master often delays power-on spikes.

• System types: direct current (DC) typical for light aircraft.

• Failure indications
  • Ammeter / loadmeter: shows charge/discharge abnormal patterns.
  • Low voltage annunciator: warning of bus voltage decay.
  • Avionics degradation: dropped radios/autopilot may indicate partial electrical failure.
• Typical actions (always POH-specific)
  • Load shedding: turn off non-essential consumers to preserve battery.
  • Alternator reset: only if POH permits procedure.
  • Land as soon as practical if unable to restore charging—battery time is finite.

References: FAA PHAK — Chapter 7: Aircraft Systems (electrical)

2.6 Vacuum/Pressure, Gyros, and Modern Avionics

• Gyro power sources
  • Vacuum system: suction spins gyro rotors in some legacy panels—vacuum pressure low can degrade AI/HI.
  • Electric gyros / AHRS: solid-state or electric spin—failure modes differ; may have battery backup on some avionics suites.
• Gyroscopic principles
  • Rigidity in space: spinning gyro resists reorientation of its spin axis (basis for AI/HI behavior).
  • Precession: when torque applied, response is 90° “around” the spin in classical explanation—used in turn instruments’ design.
• Classic gyro flight instruments
  • Attitude indicator (AI): displays pitch/bank vs horizon relative to gyro stability—must periodically align with reality via cues/synchronization procedures per type.
  • Heading indicator / directional gyro (HI/DG): displays heading but drifts due to gyro precession/earth rate—must be periodically reset to magnetic compass.
  • Turn coordinator: indicates rate of turn (and slip/skid via inclinometer ball); useful partial-panel instrument.
• Common failures
  • Vacuum pump failure: decreasing suction→ unreliable vacuum-driven gyros.
  • Electrical failure: may blank electric instruments unless on backup bus.
• Glass cockpit (modern displays)
  • ADC (air data computer): computes pressure altitude, airspeed, vertical speed from pitot-static sensors.
  • AHRS: attitude/heading reference system replacing mechanical gyro cluster on many installations.
  • PFD / MFD: integrated displays—know reversionary mode and backup instruments per POH.

References: FAA PHAK — Chapter 8: Flight Instruments

Figure (vacuum instrument cluster concept): see gyro instruments section figures in PHAK Chapter 8 PDF.

2.7 Pitot-Static Instruments and Errors

• Pitot tube: senses total pressure (static + dynamic impact) from airflow—primarily feeds airspeed indicator.
• Static port(s): sense ambient static pressure—feed altimeter, VSI, and static side of ASI.

• Airspeed indicator (ASI): differential pressure gauge comparing pitot total vs static → displays dynamic pressure scaled as speed (IAS).

• Altimeter: aneroid capsules respond to static pressure decrease with altitude—pilot sets subscale (QNH in Australian ops for altitude reporting contexts per procedures).

• Vertical speed indicator (VSI): measures rate of change of static pressure → climb/descent rate (may lag slightly).

Blockage scenarios (high-yield)

• Pitot blocked, drain open -> ASI drops toward zero.
• Pitot and drain blocked -> ASI acts like altimeter (reads unreliable with altitude change).
• Static blocked:
  • Altimeter freezes
  • VSI zero
  • ASI under-reads in climb, over-reads in descent (typical behavior).

Airspeed terminology

• IAS (indicated airspeed): direct instrument reading before corrections.
• CAS (calibrated airspeed): IAS corrected for position/instrument error (POH tables).
• EAS (equivalent airspeed): CAS corrected for compressibility (becomes important at higher speeds/altitudes).
• TAS (true airspeed): actual speed through air mass—increases vs IAS for same performance as altitude increases (lower density).
• GS (ground speed): TAS adjusted for wind (navigation performance).

Instrument/position errors

• Position error: static port location and flow field cause static pressure to differ from free stream.
• Density / compressibility: at high speed/altitude, ASI interpretation needs POH conversion to TAS.
• Lag / hysteresis: especially VSI—momentarily misleading during abrupt zoom/climb transitions.

References: FAA PHAK — Chapter 8: Flight Instruments

Figure (pitot / static pressure concepts): Wikimedia Commons — Pitot tube types

2.8 Magnetic Compass and Turning/Acceleration Errors

• Magnetic compass: aligns with Earth’s magnetic field, not geographic (true) north—subject to aircraft acceleration and turning errors.

• Variation (magnetic variation / declination): angular difference between true north and magnetic north at a location—shown on charts as isogonals.

• Deviation: compass error caused by local magnetic fields in the aircraft (wiring, ferrous structure)—corrected by compass correction card mounted near compass.

• Turning error (dip-related) — Southern Hemisphere mnemonic UNOS:
  • Undershoot headings near North, Overshoot headings near South when rolling into/out of turns from compass-only references.
• Acceleration error — Southern Hemisphere mnemonic ANDS:
  • Accelerate while near North headings→ compass tends to show turn toward East; Decelerate→ tendency toward West (conceptual exam framing—always verify with groundschool references).
• Oscillation / lag: compass swings in turbulence; dip increases toward poles—use stabilized headings and periodic DI alignment.

References: FAA PHAK — Chapter 8: Flight Instruments (magnetic compass)

Figure (compass errors overview): see compass turning/acceleration illustrations in PHAK Chapter 8.

2.9 Landing Gear, Brakes, and Hydraulics

• Landing gear configuration
  • Tricycle gear: nosewheel steering typical—more directional stability on ground for most students.
  • Tailwheel (conventional): mains forward of CG—requires specialized technique (PIO, ground-loop risk).
  • Fixed gear: always extended—lower complexity; more drag.
  • Retractable gear: reduces drag—adds extension/retraction system, warnings, and emergency procedures.
• Brakes
  • Common GA setup: hydraulic disc brakes on mains.
  • Toe brakes: independent left/right braking for steering on ground (differential braking).
• Risks
  • Brake fade / overheating: prolonged riding brakes after heavy landing or taxi downhill.
  • Parking brake: verify released before takeoff (critical checklist item).
  • Hydraulic leaks / soft pedal: abnormal braking—may indicate leak or air in system—follow POH.
• Retractable extras
  • Extension: normal electric/hydraulic/manual modes per type.
  • Warnings: horn/light—“gear unsafe” cues must be understood.
  • Emergency extension: gravity/manual valve procedures—memory items in many POHs.

References: FAA PHAK — Chapter 7: Aircraft Systems (landing gear, hydraulics)

2.10 Environmental, Ice/Anti-Ice, and Oxygen Basics

• Cabin heating (many piston singles): often muff/shroud around exhaust heats cabin air—carbon monoxide (CO) can leak from cracked exhaust/muff—know CO symptoms (headache, nausea, confusion) and shut off heat / ventilate / land.

• Ventilation / demist: ram air / cabin vents reduce humidity on windshield—critical for visibility in rain/humidity.

• Ice categories affecting flight
  • Induction icing: blocks/reduces airflow to engine (carb ice, filter ice, alternate air doors).
  • Airframe icing: accumulates on wings/tail—destroys lift and increases weight/drag.
  • Instrument icing: pitot/static blocked—airspeed/altitude misleading.
• Anti-ice vs de-ice
  • Anti-ice: systems activated before ice accretion in known icing exposure (typically turbine/airliner philosophy; light GA often emphasized avoidance).
  • De-ice: removes ice after accumulation (boots, weeping wing fluid—mostly larger aircraft; light GA often limited capability).
• Supplemental oxygen (if installed): understand hypoxic thresholds for prolonged high-altitude legs and fire risk around oxygen equipment—follow POH.

References: FAA PHAK — Chapter 7: Aircraft Systems (environmental/icing concepts)

2.11 AFM/POH Knowledge You Must Know for Exam and Flight Test

Typical AFM/POH section layout (terminology varies slightly by manufacturer):

• Section: Limitations (must-know for every flight)
  • Airspeed limitations: V-speeds (see elaboration below) and color-coded arcs on the ASI.
  • Powerplant limits: max RPM, manifold pressure, oil pressure/temperature, CHT/EGT limits if listed.
  • Weight limits: MTOW, max landing weight, max zero fuel weight, compartment limits.
  • CG envelope: approved center of gravity range; Normal vs Utility category limits if applicable.

About V-speeds

All numerical values are aircraft-specific. Memorize concepts and where to look them up; never use generic numbers on a checkride or in flight—only your POH/AFM and placards.

Naming: V = velocity (knots IAS in US/POH convention unless the POH states otherwise). Subscripts describe configuration or flight phase.

Multi-engine (awareness for theory): VMC / Vmca is minimum control speed with one engine inoperative—primarily multi-engine training; your POH if applicable.

ASI color bands (typical light aircraft—confirm against your POH figure)

Operational reminders

• Flaps: observe VFE before extending further; plan configuration changes ahead of dot / limiting speed.
• Turbulence: slow toward rough-air / maneuvering guidance in POH; never chase VNE in downdrafts.
• Approach speeds: POH may publish approach/climb speeds as checklist speeds (not always labelled with formal V-speed symbols)—still limitations.

References: FAA PHAK — Chapter 8: Flight Instruments (airspeed indicator markings), FAA PHAK — Chapter 11: Aircraft Performance (Vx, Vy, glide), FAA PHAK — Chapter 9 (where limits live in POH)

• Normal / abnormal / emergency procedures
  • Memory items: immediate actions (fire, engine failure) performed then checklist expanded.
  • Checklists: configure aircraft systematically—follow POH sequencing.
• Performance charts
  • Takeoff/landing: ground roll vs obstacle clearance distances—apply wind, slope, surface, density altitude corrections per POH order.
  • Climb/cruise: ROC, fuel flow, range/endurance—temperature/weight sensitive.
• Systems descriptions
  • Fuel: usable/unusable fuel, tank sequencing, pump usage.
  • Electrical: buses, alternator/battery failure modes.
  • Hydraulic/pneumatic: gear/flaps/brakes as applicable.
  • Supplements: STC mods (avionics, tanks) may change limits—must be onboard.

High-value memory set

• All relevant V-speeds for your training type.
• Fuel system capacities and unusable fuel.
• Oil limits, CHT/EGT limits (if listed), and key caution ranges.

References: FAA PHAK — Chapter 9: Flight Manuals and Other Documents, FAA PHAK — Chapter 10: Weight and Balance, FAA PHAK — Chapter 11: Aircraft Performance

2.12 Weight and Balance Link to AGK

• Moment: rotational tendency of a weight about the datum; computed as Weight × Arm.

• Arm: horizontal distance from datum to an item’s center of gravity (often inches or mm per POH).

• CG (center of gravity): average location of aircraft mass; CG position must remain inside approved envelope.

• Basic Empty Weight (BEW): aircraft empty weight including fixed equipment and fluids per weighing specification—often includes unusable fuel and full oil per weighing notes—always read POH weight schedule wording.

• Envelope: graph/table defining permissible combinations of weight vs CG.

• Operational impacts

  • Forward CG: more nose-heavy—often higher stall speed trend, heavier elevator forces, longer takeoff roll for rotation.
  • Aft CG: closer to aft limit—lighter control forces but reduced stability margin and stall recovery characteristics—must remain legal.

References: FAA PHAK — Chapter 10: Weight and Balance

2.13 Key Definitions and Practical Examples

• Detonation: abnormal, explosive combustion after normal ignition, causing high thermal/mechanical stress.
  • Reference: engine operational limits / mixture guidance — FAA PHAK — Chapter 7.
  • Example: high power with improper mixture/cooling in hot conditions can increase risk.
• Pre-ignition: mixture ignites before spark due to a hot spot.
  • Reference: FAA PHAK — Chapter 7.
  • Example: fouled/damaged plug or overheated component can trigger early ignition and rapid temperature rise.
• Fuel starvation: fuel onboard but not reaching engine.
  • Reference: fuel system faults / mismanagement — FAA PHAK — Chapter 7.
  • Example: incorrect tank selection after switching or blocked vent.
• Fuel exhaustion: usable fuel depleted.
  • Reference: flight planning — FAA PHAK — Chapter 11; CASA fuel policy context in CASA RPL/PPL/CPL Aeroplane Workbook.
  • Example: inaccurate fuel planning plus headwind leads to empty selected tank and engine stoppage.
• Static source blockage: loss of correct static pressure feed to instruments.
  • Reference: pitot-static failures — FAA PHAK — Chapter 8.
  • Example: altimeter freezes and VSI reads zero; ASI behavior becomes misleading in climb/descent.

Scenario: carb icing recognition

• Cruise at moderate power in humid conditions; RPM slowly falls and engine feels rough.
• Correct action: apply full carb heat, expect temporary roughness/power drop, monitor recovery, then reassess power/settings.

2.14 Common AGK Exam Traps

• Confusing fuel quantity problem with fuel feed/selection problem.
• Misreading ASI/static blockage scenarios.
• Forgetting density altitude effects on engine, prop, and wing together.
• Applying generic numbers instead of aircraft-specific POH values.
• Mixing true/magnetic/compass headings and signs for variation/deviation.
• Neglecting POH limitations for flap speeds and crosswind technique limits.

2.15 Rapid Revision Checklist (Pre-Exam)

• Can explain operation/failures of ASI, altimeter, VSI.
• Can diagnose carb icing and apply correct immediate actions.
• Can distinguish detonation vs pre-ignition and preventive handling.
• Can describe fixed vs constant-speed propeller operation and implications.
• Can compute basic W&B and interpret CG movement with fuel burn.
• Can state fuel contamination checks and fuel grade verification method.
• Can interpret compass turning/acceleration errors for Southern Hemisphere use.
• Can navigate POH sections quickly for limits, systems, and emergencies.

References (Primary)

• FAA Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (full handbook and chapter PDFs)
• FAA PHAK — Chapter 7: Aircraft Systems
• FAA PHAK — Chapter 9: Flight Manuals and Other Documents (AFM/POH concepts)
• CASA RPL/PPL/CPL Aeroplane Workbook (exam assumptions and conventions)

References (Supplementary)

• CASA Day VFR syllabus (structure and competency framing)
• CASA VFR guidance example — Visual Flight Guide PDF (training/support reference, not legislation)